Determination of the Resistivity of Constantan Wire

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Physics Coursework

Determination of the Resistivity of Constantan Wire

To calculate the resistivity of constantan wire, or any other type of wire, the resistance has to be calculated, as well as the cross sectional area and also the length.

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Resistivity of constantan wire can be determined by using the equation

= = RA/L

= = resistivity

R = resistance of wire in Ohms (Ω)

Resistance is calculated by using R = V/I = Voltage/Current

Voltage is measured in Volts, and Current is measured in Amperes

A = cross sectional area of the wire (metres square)

Cross sectional area can be calculated by A = <d/4

d = diameter

L = length of constantan wire (metres)

Physics Coursework

List of apparatus

• Power Pack Supply

• Variable Resistor

• Ammeter (0 1 Amperes)

• Voltmeter (0 6 Volts)

• Constantan Wire

• 1m Ruler

• Michrometer

• Wire Cutters

Method

The circuit was set up as shown in the diagram. The length of the wire was measured by using a meter ruler. The lengths that I chose were 1m, 0.8m, 0.6m and 0.4m. The lengths were measured from one terminal to the other. When the power pack was switched on, I recorded the voltage and then I recorded the current and the reading were recorded on the results table. The experiment was then repeated 6 more times with the same length of wire, but using different voltages. This was then repeated using different lengths of constantan wire. I measured the diameter of the constantan wire with a michrometer screw-gauge, I measured the diameter at different positions along wire, the diameter was then recorded. I then calculated the average diameter from the measurements. After every reading that was taken, the power pack was switched off because if it was left on, then the circuit would overheat. I kept the voltages fairly low so that it would not heat the wire too much, and that would affect the rest of my results, and therefore affect the resistivity of the constantan wire. I kept the diameter of the wire constant by using the same piece of constantan wire so that the diameter would not change.

When using analogue apparatus, such as a full-scale deflection voltmeter or ammeter, you have to be careful of the parallax error. The parallax error is when if you look at the reading at different angles, then the reading would look different because you are not looking down at it so that your eyes are directly above it.Resistivity of Constantan Wire

Gradient of the graph = dy/dx

Gradient of the graph = =

= = RA/L

= = 5.110^-7 .0810^-7

0.6

= .0410^-7

0.6

= = 5.0610^-7

Using the graph to calculate the average resistivity is more accurate than calculating the average resistivity using all the calculations because by drawing a line of best fit, increases the accuracy because it should cancel out the anomalous results.

From my results table and graph I can see that my results that I collected are very reliable. I know this because from the graph, it can be seen that the points plotted all near enough lie along the line of best fit. Although you may think that there is one anomalous result at 0.8m, it is only about 0.110^-7 away from being not anomalous.

From the graph, it can be seen that as the length increases, the resistance increase, therefore RA increases.

In this experiment, the errors that could have occurred were -

• The length of the wire was not very accurate, as I could have measured the wire off a few millimeters, which could have affected the whole experiment.

• The power pack might have not been turned off when I was changing the length of the constantan wire, so the heat would build up, leading to more resistance on the next reading that I was going to do.

If I was going to make improvements to the experiment, I would have tried to make the constantan wire length as accurate as can be.

To also improve on my results I would use a digital voltmeter instead of an analogue voltmeter. I would do this because a digital voltmeter is a lot more accurate than an analogue one because if the needle in the analogue voltmeter is bent then the readings will be false whereas a digital voltmeter does not rely on a needle.

I could have repeated the whole experiment again, and if the results were the same then the experiment that I carried out was accurate.Please note that this sample paper on Determination of the Resistivity of Constantan Wire is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Determination of the Resistivity of Constantan Wire, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on Determination of the Resistivity of Constantan Wire will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Mark twain

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There arent many people who can be called the best in America. Michael Jordan, who has won numerous championships, can be considered the best in the game of

basketball. Tiger woods is said to be the best golfer ever. George Washington is said to be one of the best presidents in America history. Among these great figures on America are sometime forgotten American authors. Mark Twain is one of the best authors to ever walk on American soil. He wrote numerous books and short essays that are now considered a work of art. His life and his writings were also extremely interesting. Mark Twain had hard times as well as good times, like all of us in this world. Unfortunately, there was mors bad than good for Twain. Despite the pain he endured, Twain contributed to American Literature through his famous writing that are still being read today.

In order to find out how a man could write some of the greatest books in history, we must start at the beginning. Mark Twain was not always known as Mark. He was born asSamuel Langhorn Clemens on November 0,185 in the small town of Florida, Missouri. He was the sixth son of John MArshall and Jane Lampton Clemens. He had been a sickly child- he said he lived mainly on allopathic medicine during the first seven years of his life (De Koster 16). A few years later, his family moved to Hannibal, Missouri. At the age of nine, Samuel got to play outside because he was no longer sick and had completely recovered. He later wrote about these childhood experiences in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer. At age twelve, Samuel had to deal with the tragic death of his father. This completely dirupted his life. Soon after ha had to get out of school and start working so he could support himself and his family. Samuel went looking for a job. He took a job as a printers apprentice hoping to someday help his brother, Orion, in his newspaper.

Later in his life, he decided to become a river pilots apprentice. This is where he took the name Mark Twain. Mark Twain means that a boat can leave port and it is safe to go on ots voyage. Since the pilots occupation wasnt supplying the right amount of fun and work after the civil war, he moved to a different location around the United States working for several, newspaper.

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In 1870, Mark Twain married the love of his life, Olivia Lagndon . Twain immediately began a family. He fathered four children. Unfortunately, he witnessed the death of three of them. Langdon, the oldest son died a few months after his birth because he was a month premature. Susy and Jean both daughters of Twain died in bout there twenties. Susy past away from meningitis and Jean from an epileptic seizure and drowned in her bath. The last of his children, Clara, lived to be eighty- eight years old. Unfortunately, she only had one daughter who died without having any child of her own. Twain has no living descendents.

Twain attended school until the age of twelve and learned the necessary to reaed and to write. It seemed that he carried all his information through all his desire to write. Imagine if he would have still gone to college? How would have been the difference?

There was only a few influential people Twain mentions in his writings. One of the two men were Joseph Goodman, the paper founder, and Dan Quille, a star writer. Twain never got to write a book about the things that influenced him, if he had he would have surely written about the bible (De Koster 16)

One of Mark Twains very first published sketches was A Gallent Fireman a one page paragraph anecdote in January 16,1851. This was about a young man who became a hero by distinguishing a fire in a grocery store. He was very proud of this because it was his first and proud that people actually liked it. This is what made him want to write more. Next, he would write his most famous novel called The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. He had many works done but one sad acount would be whn he wrote about the death of his daughter Susy. He wrote about the way he and his wife couldnt be there because they were in Europe when she died. He had many published books, novels, and essays that are still being read to this day.

Mark Twain achieved many goals. He wrote what he thought and what he experienced. Twain got to publish mostly all of them. His first proudly said award was recieved in 1888 for Honorary M.A, Yale Universtiy and another in 101 for Litt. D., Yale University and later recieved more and more (Samuel Langhorne Clemens 185-110 )

Mark Twain was a well known man during his days. He had ups and downs in his life, but one way he would get rid of the pain he suffered while growing up would be to write. He accomplished and recieved all the respect that he needed and will live forever in peoples homes and lives. Mark Twain will never be forgotten.

Please note that this sample paper on mark twain is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on mark twain, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on mark twain will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Schindler's List 1005 words

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I dont think any one film is ever going to change anything. I dont think any one newspaper article ever changes anything. But over a period of years, the drip, drip, drip of a lot of gook movies, a lot of good articles...all this is very, very, very important. The effect of that drip, drip, drip the daily diet of views and ideas that adhere to and promote what is best in society, that has an effect. Not one movie, not one article, not one building, but just that fact that all of us buckle down and try to do better and beter.

The movie Schindlers List is a movie that is used to make people really think about what is right and what is wrong, specifically the Nazi treatement of the Jews. Throughout Schindlers List power scenes and images are used to capture how atrosic the treatment of the Jews really was. The movie helps people to get a view back in history and decide how they truly feel on the subject. It is Steven Speilburgs affective plot, content, imagery and film making skills that makes Schindlers List a movie that adds to constant drip, drip, drip of a viewpoint.

The plot of the movie is very affective in displaying the severe treatment that the Jews experienced from the Nazis. The movie begins with Oskar Schindler getting on the good side of Nazi officers so that he will be able to obtain Jews to work for him without a problem. After Schindler obtains the Jews to work for him the movie really begins to focus on the horrible treatment towards the Jews. A scene that really stands out and shows a moment of realization for Schindler is when the Jews are stripped from their homes in the ghettos. This is a point in the movie where for the first time Schindler begins to see the hardships that the Jewish people have to face.

The movie continues on to show many of the experiences of the Jews. After the Jews were stripped from their homes in the ghetto they were moved to the concentration camp where Ghert had control of the Jews. Spielberg is able to use Ghert to show the extreme hatred that some of the Nazis had toward Jews. With Gherts numerous random killings, Spielberg makes it evident that the Jews were being exterminated by the Nazis. The terrible treatement and the killing of the Jews really helps to build the plot of this movie.

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Schindler witnesses this horrible treatment and the random killing of the Jews. This lets us the viewer get an idea of why Schindler decides to help the Jews. In the last past of the movie it focuses on Schindler trying to save Jewish lives by buying Jews to work in a factory where he is able to manipulate the Nazi soldiers to not treat the Jews poorly. For the viewer to see that Schindler begins to gain sypothy for the Jews after he witnesses their treatment is essential to the plot because this helps them to see it from a perspective of Schindler and helps them to understand his feelings, more importantly what kind of person that Schindler is. The viewer gets a much better perspective on why Schindler risks his live and spends all of his money in order to save the Jews. The use of plot by Spielberg plays an affective role throughout the movie.

Another element that can be seen throughout the movie is the use of imagery. Spielberg does a great job on showing what was happening to the Jews. The viewer can feel as if they were in the movie where terrible things were happening. Effective imagery is used when a few of the Jews were shot in the head by Nazi soldiers. The people being shot had obviously done nothing wrong. For instance, the woman who told Ghert that the fondation needed to be repoured. She was just doing her job and she was shot in the head. After she falls to the ground you can see the blood flowing out of her head onto the ground. This imagery is used multiple times throughout the movie when other Jews are shot in the head.

Imagery was continued to be used in the movie when the Jewish corpsases were being disposed of. This is seen a number of times throughout the movie. One time is when Schindler gets out of jail and ashes are coming down from the sky. The ashes were from the thousands of Jewish bodies were being burned in the incinerary. Jewish corpsases were also burried by the hundreds and there were also open burning pits where Jewish bodies were being dropped into the fire by convayor belts. The burning of the bodies was definately an effective use of imagery.

The little girl that had the red jacket was the only color used in this film and she was a source of imagery. The girl stood out from all of the other Jewish people when they were being taken from their homes in the ghettos. She wondered around innocently, not really paying attention to what was going on around her. She was afraid of what was happening so she made her way unnoticed into an apartment where she was able to hide underneath a bed. This little girl was used as imagery to symbolize innosence. The red jacket she wore made her stand out so the viewer was really able to notice her. The fact that the girl was so young and so afraid is what symbolized her true innocense. This was another way Spielberg used imagery in the movie.

Schindlers List is a movie that has a great impact on the viewers that see it. They are able to see the bad experiences that the Jewish community had to face with the Nazis. Schindlers List is an example of one of those movies that does not change peoples views, but with the drip, drip, drip of movies like this will truly begin to change peoples views.

Please note that this sample paper on Schindler's List 1005 words is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on Schindler's List 1005 words, we are here to assist you. Your cheap custom college papers on Schindler's List 1005 words will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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Smoking

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Cigarette smoking is the most significant cause of lung cancer and also the leading cause of death in both men and women. Cigarette smoking is accountable for at least one-third of deaths of cancer annually in the United States. Cigarette smoking is an addiction that can be prevented. However, once a person inhales a cigarette it becomes an addiction that can cause lung cancer, heart disease, and other health effects which I think people should be aware of.

Smoking involves inhaling and absorbing nicotine into the bloodstream and traveling it to the brain which causes an addictive effect. Every time the smoker's serum nicotine level falls below the minimum limit, he/she experiences drug withdrawal which makes him/her to become tense, anxious, and irritable. This feeling of dependency on nicotine makes the smoker to continue to smoke, therefore those who continue to smoke will continue to be in a constant battle of maintaining their serum nicotine level. Nevertheless it is best to never start smoking because once a puff is inhaled, you will become addicted to nicotine and continue to crave for it.

People commonly start smoking when they were a teenager. Some teenagers smoke because they want to be rebellious, however, the most common reason is peer pressure. Teenagers start smoking because they think it will give them a better image like being cooler, more attractive, or more popular. However, some people say they smoke because they are unhappy, unsatisfied, nervous, bored, anxious, lonely, tired or just

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frustrated without their cigarettes. Other reasons are that cigarettes keep them thin, help them think better, or they are more sociable while smoking. On the contrary, cigarette smoking can cause serious health problems. Health problems such as symptoms, diseases, and cancer which can be fatal.

Nicotine has both stimulant and depressant effects on the central nervous system. It can cause many symptoms such as; alertness or relaxation, changes in mood and behavior, diarrhea, increased pulse and blood pressure, nausea and vomiting, and tremors. There are also risks of experiencing withdrawal symptoms, such as; stress, anxiety, depression, or boredom. Smoking causes many symptoms and it can also cause serious damage to one's health. Smoking is responsible for most cancers of the larynx, oral cavity, esophagus, and lung cancer. In addition, it is highly associated with the development of. bladder, kidney, pancreatic, and cervical cancers.

Tobacco use can also cause chronic bronchitis, coronary artery disease and other forms of heart disease, such as; emphysema and gastro esophageal reflux disease. Tobacco also is a factor in causing decreased life expectancy, gray hair and baldness, high blood pressure, infertility in men and women, increased risk for bone fractures, premature wrinkles and a weakened immune system. Most experience heart attacks, strokes, or other circulatory conditions. Nevertheless, cigarette smoking is a serious addiction that causes serious health problems that people should be aware of.

Cigarette smoking is an addiction that can cause significant damage to ones health. It is also the leading cause of lung cancer death in both men and women. However, it is an addiction that can be prevented; which is to never smoke at all. Once a

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puff is inhaled, the nicotine is absorbed into the body causing an addictive effect. I believe that people should start thinking of the effects that nicotine can do to their lives. I truly do not think that smoking is worth risking a person's life. I know that there are serious consequences of smoking, which is why I am not a smoker. I have thought about taking a puff to see why people like to smoke but I always thought about the risks which is why I never even tried it at all. I know that nicotine is an addictive chemical that can cause cancer and other serious damage to the body. I experienced and saw what nicotine can do. My uncle had past away a couple of months ago from lung cancer which was caused by his dependency on smoking. I would think about the consequences before I act upon doing something and there are many serious consequences of smoking. Once you inhale a cigarette, it becomes an addiction and in the long run will cause damage to the health. So, think before you act and know the consequences that it can do to you and the ones that you love.

Works Cited

The Washington Times. 00. "Blowing Smoke." July 00. http//www.washingtontimes.com/op-ed/00051-05610-6057r.htm

Detroit Free Press. 00. "No Smoking." July 00. http//www.freep.com/voices/editorials/esmoke_000.htm

The Seattle Times. 00. "Smoking Ruins." July 00. http//seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/editorialsoppinion/satlets1.html

Foodservice News. 001. "Hundreds of Restaurants to go smoke-free for a day." July 00. http//www.foodservice.com/001/11/1/eng-starnews_business.htmlPlease note that this sample paper on smoking is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on smoking, we are here to assist you. Your cheap research papers on smoking will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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American Oligarchy

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Word Count: 905 The American Oligarchy America: The Pretense of Democracy The Aristotelian view of democracy showed democracy as a supreme state of being, promoting equality more than anything. It allowed every person to have as much say in a government as any other person, and yet still allowed individuality to reign. To follow this path of "true" democracy is to follow the path to a perfect country. Yet America, which prides itself on being a truly democratic nation, is filled with corruption and extortion, nothing like the Utopia Aristotle portrayed. America is in the hands of a select few. A tiny fraction of the population holds any real political power, while the rest simply sit idly by. This goes against the very principle of democracy. Aristotle said of this Any one man [of the many] may be inferior [to a man of excellence], but the city-state is made up of many men. Just as a meal done by many is better than a single and simple one, for this reason a mass (ochlos) can judge many things better than any one man. In addition, that which is many is less likely to be corrupted. So, although an individual's judgment can be corrupted when he is overcome by anger or some other emotion, it is difficult for all to become angry and make erroneous judgments simultaneously. If all the men are good men and good citizens, they are less corruptible than one man. However, seldom is this the case with American politics. There are far fewer politicians then there are low class workers or unemployed, and yet these politicians decide upon most all of the important decisions the country is faced with. The only time the rest of the people are involved is when these politicians spew out money and promises in an attempt to gain the popularity of the public whom they are so far from. Although the majority of the United States is low to middle class, the only people in high political positions are those who spend millions of dollars to get where they are. Equality is one of the largest foundations of democracy, and yet those who are not fabulously wealthy or who have not spent all their life attempting to establish themselves as a politician have no chance of becoming a successful one. According to Aristotle, "Justice as understood in democracy is equality, but this considers only part of what is just; the same is true of the notion of justice in oligarchy." The American system of democracy is anything but equal. The original Bill of Rights was very clear about having one person represent many. The very first article stated After the first enumeration required by the first article of the Constitution, there shall be one Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number shall amount to one hundred… …there shall be not less than one hundred Representatives nor less than one Representative for every forty thousand persons, until the number of Representatives shall amount to two hundred… …there shall not be less than two hundred Representatives, nor more than one Representative for every fifty thousand persons. To have one person speak for numbers exceeding thirty thousand is certainly not democratic in its original sense. It is not possible for one man to properly ensure that the differing rights of thirty thousand people are upheld. This article was not ratified, but it was proposed to be Article I of the Bill of Rights. Although America claims to have been founded on the principles of democracy, its very foundations proposed something so very undemocratic that this claim becomes preposterous. The definition of democracy is "ruled by many". Many, however, do not rule America. There is another term for this. It is oligarchy, which means, "ruled by few". America is quite definitely an oligarchy, and it shows many qualities as such. Aristotle referred to Sparta as an oligarchy because its political system was to have two offices elected by the people, as opposed to having everything run by the people. He says The Spartan common messes were intended to be a democratic institution, but they did not work out that way. Everyone is required to contribute [to the shared meals], but some of them are too poor to do so. The very poorest cannot easily share in the common messes, yet this is the ancestral defining principal of their system of government. Thus the very poor do not have a share in it. This is the perfect picture of America. The poor cannot contribute, and therefore are left out, pushed aside by the rich, who can rule. This nation is not the democracy Aristotle speaks, but rather an oligarchy very similar to Sparta. Aristotle's democracy was a democracy that endorsed equality to its fullest. Instead of forcing the thoughts of everyone through one biased individual, it allowed every person to have a voice. America is not a democracy. It tries very hard to make the people of the world think it is, but it is not. It goes against much of what Aristotle spoke of with fervor. Not everyone has an equal opportunity, nor does everyone have a voice. In fact, equality continues to diminish despite steps taken to push it further. Most of America is a simple façade that can be stripped away with minor effort. It is a mere pretense of democracy that would die out if it were to attempt to become anything more. Please note that this sample paper on American Oligarchy is for your review only. In order to eliminate any of the plagiarism issues, it is highly recommended that you do not use it for you own writing purposes. In case you experience difficulties with writing a well structured and accurately composed paper on American Oligarchy, we are here to assist you. Your on American Oligarchy will be written from scratch, so you do not have to worry about its originality.

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